• 1) Chip utilization depends on ___.

a. Only on standard cells
b. Standard cells and macros
c. Only on macros
d. Standard cells macros and IO pads

• 2) In Soft blockages ____ cells are placed.

a. Only sequential cells
b. No cells
c. Only Buffers and Inverters
d. Any cells

• 3) Why we have to remove scan chains before placement?

a. Because scan chains are group of flip flop
b. It does not have timing critical path
c. It is series of flip flop connected in FIFO
d. None

• 4) Delay between shortest path and longest path in the clock is called ____.

a. Useful skew
b. Local skew
c. Global skew
d. Slack

• 5) Cross talk can be avoided by ___.

a. Decreasing the spacing between the metal layers
b. Shielding the nets
c. Using lower metal layers
d. Using long nets

• 6) Prerouting means routing of _____.

a. Clock nets
b. Signal nets
c. IO nets
d. PG nets

• 7) Which of the following metal layer has Maximum resistance?

a. Metal1
b. Metal2
c. Metal3
d. Metal4

• 8) What is the goal of CTS?

a. Minimum IR Drop
b. Minimum EM
c. Minimum Skew
d. Minimum Slack

• 9) Usually Hold is fixed ___.

a. Before Placement
b. After Placement
c. Before CTS
d. After CTS

• 10) To achieve better timing ____ cells are placed in the critical path.

a. HVT
b. LVT
c. RVT
d. SVT

• 11) Leakage power is inversely proportional to ___.

a. Frequency
b. Load Capacitance
c. Supply voltage
d. Threshold Voltage

• 12) Filler cells are added ___.

a. Before Placement of std cells
b. After Placement of Std Cells
c. Before Floor planning
d. Before Detail Routing

• 13) Search and Repair is used for ___.

a. Reducing IR Drop
b. Reducing DRC
c. Reducing EM violations
d. None

• 14) Maximum current density of a metal is available in ___.

a. .lib
b. .v
c. .tf
d. .sdc

• 15) More IR drop is due to ___.

a. Increase in metal width
b. Increase in metal length
c. Decrease in metal length
d. Lot of metal layers

• 16) The minimum height and width a cell can occupy in the design is called as ___.

a. Unit Tile cell
b. Multi heighten cell
c. LVT cell
d. HVT cell

• 17) CRPR stands for ___.

a. Cell Convergence Pessimism Removal
b. Cell Convergence Preset Removal
c. Clock Convergence Pessimism Removal
d. Clock Convergence Preset Removal

• 18) In OCV timing check, for setup time, ___.

a. Max delay is used for launch path and Min delay for capture path
b. Min delay is used for launch path and Max delay for capture path
c. Both Max delay is used for launch and Capture path
d. Both Min delay is used for both Capture and Launch paths

• 19) "Total metal area and(or) perimeter of conducting layer / gate to gate area" is called ___.

a. Utilization
b. Aspect Ratio
c. OCV
d. Antenna Ratio

• 20) The Solution for Antenna effect is ___.

a. Diode insertion
b. Shielding
c. Buffer insertion
d. Double spacing

• 21) To avoid cross talk, the shielded net is usually connected to ___.

a. VDD
b. VSS
c. Both VDD and VSS
d. Clock

• 22) If the data is faster than the clock in Reg to Reg path ___ violation may come.

a. Setup
b. Hold
c. Both
d. None

• 23) Hold violations are preferred to fix ___.

a. Before placement
b. After placement
c. Before CTS
d. After CTS

• 24) Which of the following is not present in SDC ___?

a. Max tran
b. Max cap
c. Max fanout
d. Max current density

• 25) Timing sanity check means (with respect to PD)___.

a. Checking timing of routed design with out net delays
b. Checking Timing of placed design with net delays
c. Checking Timing of unplaced design without net delays
d. Checking Timing of routed design with net delays

• 26) Which of the following is having highest priority at final stage (post routed) of the design ___?

a. Setup violation
b. Hold violation
c. Skew
d. None

• 27) Which of the following is best suited for CTS?

a. CLKBUF
b. BUF
c. INV
d. CLKINV

• 28) Max voltage drop will be there at(with out macros) ___.

a. Left and Right sides
b. Bottom and Top sides
c. Middle
d. None

• 29) Which of the following is preferred while placing macros ___?

a. Macros placed center of the die
b. Macros placed left and right side of die
c. Macros placed bottom and top sides of die
d. Macros placed based on connectivity of the I/O

• 30) Routing congestion can be avoided by ___.

a. placing cells closer
b. Placing cells at corners
c. Distributing cells
d. None

• 31) Pitch of the wire is ___.

a. Min width
b. Min spacing
c. Min width - min spacing
d. Min width + min spacing

• 32) In Physical Design following step is not there ___.

a. Floorplaning
b. Placement
c. Design Synthesis
d. CTS

• 33) In technology file if 7 metals are there then which metals you will use for power?

a. Metal1 and metal2
b. Metal3 and metal4
c. Metal5 and metal6
d. Metal6 and metal7

• 34) If metal6 and metal7 are used for the power in 7 metal layer process design then which metals you will use for clock ?

a. Metal1 and metal2
b. Metal3 and metal4
c. Metal4 and metal5
d. Metal6 and metal7

• 35) In a reg to reg timing path Tclocktoq delay is 0.5ns and TCombo delay is 5ns and Tsetup is 0.5ns then the clock period should be ___.

a. 1ns
b. 3ns
c. 5ns
d. 6ns

• 36) Difference between Clock buff/inverters and normal buff/inverters is __.

a. Clock buff/inverters are faster than normal buff/inverters
b. Clock buff/inverters are slower than normal buff/inverters
c. Clock buff/inverters are having equal rise and fall times with high drive strengths compare to normal buff/inverters
d. Normal buff/inverters are having equal rise and fall times with high drive strengths compare to Clock buff/inverters.

• 37) Which configuration is more preferred during floorplaning ?

a. Double back with flipped rows
b. Double back with non flipped rows
c. With channel spacing between rows and no double back
d. With channel spacing between rows and double back

• 38) What is the effect of high drive strength buffer when added in long net ?

a. Delay on the net increases
b. Capacitance on the net increases
c. Delay on the net decreases
d. Resistance on the net increases.

• 39) Delay of a cell depends on which factors ?

a. Output transition and input load
b. Input transition and Output load
c. Input transition and Output transition
d. Input load and Output Load.

• 40) After the final routing the violations in the design ___.

a. There can be no setup, no hold violations
b. There can be only setup violation but no hold
c. There can be only hold violation not Setup violation
d. There can be both violations.

• 41) Utilisation of the chip after placement optimisation will be ___.

a. Constant
b. Decrease
c. Increase
d. None of the above

• 42) What is routing congestion in the design?

a. Ratio of required routing tracks to available routing tracks
b. Ratio of available routing tracks to required routing tracks
c. Depends on the routing layers available
d. None of the above

• 43) What are preroutes in your design?

a. Power routing
b. Signal routing
c. Power and Signal routing
d. None of the above.

• 44) Clock tree doesn't contain following cell ___.

a. Clock buffer
b. Clock Inverter
c. AOI cell
d. None of the above

• Answers:

1)b
2)c
3)b
4)c
5)b
6)d
7)a
8)c
9)d
10)b
11)d
12)d
13)b
14)c
15)b
16)a
17)c
18)a
19)d
20)a
21)b
22)b
23)d
24)d
25)c
26)b
27)a
28)c
29)d
30)c
31)d
32)c
33)d
34)c
35)d
36)c
37)a
38)c
39)b
40)d
41)c
42)a
43)a
44)c

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Labels: Physical Design

• Below are the sequence of questions asked for a physical design engineer.

In which field are you interested?

• Answer to this question depends on your interest, expertise and to the requirement for which you have been interviewed.

• Well..the candidate gave answer: Low power design

Can you talk about low power techniques?
How low power and latest 90nm/65nm technologies are related?

• Refer here and browse for different low power techniques.

Do you know about input vector controlled method of leakage reduction?

• Leakage current of a gate is dependant on its inputs also. Hence find the set of inputs which gives least leakage. By applyig this minimum leakage vector to a circuit it is possible to decrease the leakage current of the circuit when it is in the standby mode. This method is known as input vector controlled method of leakage reduction.

How can you reduce dynamic power?

• -Reduce switching activity by designing good RTL
• -Clock gating
• -Architectural improvements
• -Reduce supply voltage
• -Use multiple voltage domains-Multi vdd

What are the vectors of dynamic power?

• Voltage and Current

How will you do power planning?

• Refer here for power planning.

If you have both IR drop and congestion how will you fix it?

• -Spread macros
• -Spread standard cells
• -Increase strap width
• -Increase number of straps
• -Use proper blockage

Is increasing power line width and providing more number of straps are the only solution to IR drop?

• -Spread macros
• -Spread standard cells
• -Use proper blockage

In a reg to reg path if you have setup problem where will you insert buffer-near to launching flop or capture flop? Why?

• (buffers are inserted for fixing fanout voilations and hence they reduce setup voilation; otherwise we try to fix setup voilation with the sizing of cells; now just assume that you must insert buffer !)

• Near to capture path.

• Because there may be other paths passing through or originating from the flop nearer to lauch flop. Hence buffer insertion may affect other paths also. It may improve all those paths or degarde. If all those paths have voilation then you may insert buffer nearer to launch flop provided it improves slack.

How will you decide best floorplan?

• Refer here for floor planning.

What is the most challenging task you handled?
What is the most challenging job in P&R flow?

• -It may be power planning- because you found more IR drop
• -It may be low power target-because you had more dynamic and leakage power
• -It may be macro placement-because it had more connection with standard cells or macros
• -It may be CTS-because you needed to handle multiple clocks and clock domain crossings
• -It may be timing-because sizing cells in ECO flow is not meeting timing
• -It may be library preparation-because you found some inconsistancy in libraries.
• -It may be DRC-because you faced thousands of voilations

How will you synthesize clock tree?

• -Single clock-normal synthesis and optimization
• -Multiple clocks-Synthesis each clock seperately
• -Multiple clocks with domain crossing-Synthesis each clock seperately and balance the skew

How many clocks were there in this project?

• -It is specific to your project
• -More the clocks more challenging !

How did you handle all those clocks?

• -Multiple clocks-->synthesize seperately-->balance the skew-->optimize the clock tree

Are they come from seperate external resources or PLL?

• -If it is from seperate clock sources (i.e.asynchronous; from different pads or pins) then balancing skew between these clock sources becomes challenging.

• -If it is from PLL (i.e.synchronous) then skew balancing is comparatively easy.

Why buffers are used in clock tree?

• To balance skew (i.e. flop to flop delay)

What is cross talk?

• Switching of the signal in one net can interfere neigbouring net due to cross coupling capacitance.This affect is known as cros talk. Cross talk may lead setup or hold voilation.

How can you avoid cross talk?

• -Double spacing=>more spacing=>less capacitance=>less cross talk
• -Multiple vias=>less resistance=>less RC delay
• -Shielding=> constant cross coupling capacitance =>known value of crosstalk
• -Buffer insertion=>boost the victim strength

How shielding avoids crosstalk problem? What exactly happens there?

• -High frequency noise (or glitch)is coupled to VSS (or VDD) since shilded layers are connected to either VDD or VSS.

• Coupling capacitance remains constant with VDD or VSS.

How spacing helps in reducing crosstalk noise?

• width is more=>more spacing between two conductors=>cross coupling capacitance is less=>less cross talk

Why double spacing and multiple vias are used related to clock?

• Why clock?-- because it is the one signal which chages it state regularly and more compared to any other signal. If any other signal switches fast then also we can use double space.

• Double spacing=>width is more=>capacitance is less=>less cross talk

• Multiple vias=>resistance in parellel=>less resistance=>less RC delay

How buffer can be used in victim to avoid crosstalk?

• Buffer increase victims signal strength; buffers break the net length=>victims are more tolerant to coupled signal from aggressor.

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Labels: Physical Design, Synthesis, Timing Analysis

• I am getting several emails requesting answers to the questions posted in this blog. But it is very difficult to provide detailed answer to all questions in my available spare time. Hence i decided to give "short and sweet" one line answers to the questions so that readers can immediately benefited. Detailed answers will be posted in later stage.I have given answers to some of the physical design questions here. Enjoy !

What parameters (or aspects) differentiate Chip Design and Block level design?

• Chip design has I/O pads; block design has pins.

• Chip design uses all metal layes available; block design may not use all metal layers.

• Chip is generally rectangular in shape; blocks can be rectangular, rectilinear.

• Chip design requires several packaging; block design ends in a macro.

How do you place macros in a full chip design?

• First check flylines i.e. check net connections from macro to macro and macro to standard cells.

• If there is more connection from macro to macro place those macros nearer to each other preferably nearer to core boundaries.

• If input pin is connected to macro better to place nearer to that pin or pad.

• If macro has more connection to standard cells spread the macros inside core.

• Avoid criscross placement of macros.

• Use soft or hard blockages to guide placement engine.

Differentiate between a Hierarchical Design and flat design?

• Hierarchial design has blocks, subblocks in an hierarchy; Flattened design has no subblocks and it has only leaf cells.

• Hierarchical design takes more run time; Flattened design takes less run time.

Which is more complicated when u have a 48 MHz and 500 MHz clock design?

• 500 MHz; because it is more constrained (i.e.lesser clock period) than 48 MHz design.

Name few tools which you used for physical verification?

• Herculis from Synopsys, Caliber from Mentor Graphics.

What are the input files will you give for primetime correlation?

• Netlist, Technology library, Constraints, SPEF or SDF file.

If the routing congestion exists between two macros, then what will you do?

• Provide soft or hard blockage

How will you decide the die size?

• By checking the total area of the design you can decide die size.

If lengthy metal layer is connected to diffusion and poly, then which one will affect by antenna problem?

• Poly

If the full chip design is routed by 7 layer metal, why macros are designed using 5LM instead of using 7LM?

• Because top two metal layers are required for global routing in chip design. If top metal layers are also used in block level it will create routing blockage.

In your project what is die size, number of metal layers, technology, foundry, number of clocks?

• Die size: tell in mm eg. 1mm x 1mm ; remeber 1mm=1000micron which is a big size !!

• Metal layers: See your tech file. generally for 90nm it is 7 to 9.

• Technology: Again look into tech files.

• Foundry:Again look into tech files; eg. TSMC, IBM, ARTISAN etc

• Clocks: Look into your design and SDC file !

How many macros in your design?

• You know it well as you have designed it ! A SoC (System On Chip) design may have 100 macros also !!!!

What is each macro size and number of standard cell count?

• Depends on your design.

What are the input needs for your design?

• For synthesis: RTL, Technology library, Standard cell library, Constraints

• For Physical design: Netlist, Technology library, Constraints, Standard cell library

What is SDC constraint file contains?

• Clock definitions

• Timing exception-multicycle path, false path

• Input and Output delays

How did you do power planning? How to calculate core ring width, macro ring width and strap or trunk width? How to find number of power pad and IO power pads? How the width of metal and number of straps calculated for power and ground?

• Get the total core power consumption; get the metal layer current density value from the tech file; Divide total power by number sides of the chip; Divide the obtained value from the current density to get core power ring width. Then calculate number of straps using some more equations. Will be explained in detail later.

How to find total chip power?

• Total chip power=standard cell power consumption,Macro power consumption pad power consumption.

What are the problems faced related to timing?

• Prelayout: Setup, Max transition, max capacitance

• Post layout: Hold

How did you resolve the setup and hold problem?

• Setup: upsize the cells

• Hold: insert buffers

In which layer do you prefer for clock routing and why?

• Next lower layer to the top two metal layers(global routing layers). Because it has less resistance hence less RC delay.

If in your design has reset pin, then it’ll affect input pin or output pin or both?

• Output pin.

During power analysis, if you are facing IR drop problem, then how did you avoid?

• Increase power metal layer width.

• Go for higher metal layer.

• Spread macros or standard cells.

• Provide more straps.

Define antenna problem and how did you resolve these problem?

• Increased net length can accumulate more charges while manufacturing of the device due to ionisation process. If this net is connected to gate of the MOSFET it can damage dielectric property of the gate and gate may conduct causing damage to the MOSFET. This is antenna problem.

• Decrease the length of the net by providing more vias and layer jumping.

• Insert antenna diode.

How delays vary with different PVT conditions? Show the graph.

• P increase->dealy increase

• P decrease->delay decrease

• V increase->delay decrease

• V decrease->delay increase

• T increase->delay increase

• T decrease->delay decrease

Explain the flow of physical design and inputs and outputs for each step in flow.

• Click here to see the flow diagram

What is cell delay and net delay?

• Gate delay

• Transistors within a gate take a finite time to switch. This means that a change on the input of a gate takes a finite time to cause a change on the output.[Magma]

• Gate delay =function of(i/p transition time, Cnet+Cpin).

• Cell delay is also same as Gate delay.

• Cell delay

• For any gate it is measured between 50% of input transition to the corresponding 50% of output transition.

• Intrinsic delay

• Intrinsic delay is the delay internal to the gate. Input pin of the cell to output pin of the cell.

• It is defined as the delay between an input and output pair of a cell, when a near zero slew is applied to the input pin and the output does not see any load condition.It is predominantly caused by the internal capacitance associated with its transistor.

• This delay is largely independent of the size of the transistors forming the gate because increasing size of transistors increase internal capacitors.

• Net Delay (or wire delay)

• The difference between the time a signal is first applied to the net and the time it reaches other devices connected to that net.

• It is due to the finite resistance and capacitance of the net.It is also known as wire delay.

• Wire delay =fn(Rnet , Cnet+Cpin)

What are delay models and what is the difference between them?

• Linear Delay Model (LDM)

• Non Linear Delay Model (NLDM)

What is wire load model?

• Wire load model is NLDM which has estimated R and C of the net.

Why higher metal layers are preferred for Vdd and Vss?

• Because it has less resistance and hence leads to less IR drop.

What is logic optimization and give some methods of logic optimization.

• Upsizing

• Downsizing

• Buffer insertion

• Buffer relocation

• Dummy buffer placement

What is the significance of negative slack?

• negative slack==> there is setup voilation==> deisgn can fail

What is signal integrity? How it affects Timing?

• IR drop, Electro Migration (EM), Crosstalk, Ground bounce are signal integrity issues.

• If Idrop is more==>delay increases.

• crosstalk==>there can be setup as well as hold voilation.

What is IR drop? How to avoid? How it affects timing?

• There is a resistance associated with each metal layer. This resistance consumes power causing voltage drop i.e.IR drop.

• If IR drop is more==>delay increases.

What is EM and it effects?

• Due to high current flow in the metal atoms of the metal can displaced from its origial place. When it happens in larger amount the metal can open or bulging of metal layer can happen. This effect is known as Electro Migration.

• Affects: Either short or open of the signal line or power line.

What are types of routing?

• Global Routing

• Track Assignment

• Detail Routing

What is latency? Give the types?

• Source Latency

• It is known as source latency also. It is defined as "the delay from the clock origin point to the clock definition point in the design".

• Delay from clock source to beginning of clock tree (i.e. clock definition point).

• The time a clock signal takes to propagate from its ideal waveform origin point to the clock definition point in the design.

• Network latency

• It is also known as Insertion delay or Network latency. It is defined as "the delay from the clock definition point to the clock pin of the register".

• The time clock signal (rise or fall) takes to propagate from the clock definition point to a register clock pin.

What is track assignment?

• Second stage of the routing wherein particular metal tracks (or layers) are assigned to the signal nets.

What is congestion?

• If the number of routing tracks available for routing is less than the required tracks then it is known as congestion.

Whether congestion is related to placement or routing?

• Routing

What are clock trees?

• Distribution of clock from the clock source to the sync pin of the registers.

What are clock tree types?

• H tree, Balanced tree, X tree, Clustering tree, Fish bone

What is cloning and buffering?

• Cloning is a method of optimization that decreases the load of a heavily loaded cell by replicating the cell.

• Buffering is a method of optimization that is used to insert beffers in high fanout nets to decrease the dealy.

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Labels: Physical Design

• What is the difference between hard macro, firm macro and soft macro?

or

• What are IPs?

• Hard macro, firm macro and soft macro are all known as IP (Intellectual property). They are optimized for power, area and performance. They can be purchased and used in your ASIC or FPGA design implementation flow. Soft macro is flexible for all type of ASIC implementation. Hard macro can be used in pure ASIC design flow, not in FPGA flow. Before bying any IP it is very important to evaluate its advantages and disadvantages over each other, hardware compatibility such as I/O standards with your design blocks, reusability for other designs.

Soft macros

• Soft macros are in synthesizable RTL.

• Soft macros are more flexible than firm or hard macros.

• Soft macros are not specific to any manufacturing process.

• Soft macros have the disadvantage of being somewhat unpredictable in terms of performance, timing, area, or power.

• Soft macros carry greater IP protection risks because RTL source code is more portable and therefore, less easily protected than either a netlist or physical layout data.

• From the physical design perspective, soft macro is any cell that has been placed and routed in a placement and routing tool such as Astro. (This is the definition given in Astro Rail user manual !)

• Soft macros are editable and can contain standard cells, hard macros, or other soft macros.

Firm macros

• Firm macros are in netlist format.

• Firm macros are optimized for performance/area/power using a specific fabrication technology.

• Firm macros are more flexible and portable than hard macros.

• Firm macros are predictive of performance and area than soft macros.

Hard macro

• Hard macros are generally in the form of hardware IPs (or we termed it as hardwre IPs !).

• Hard macos are targeted for specific IC manufacturing technology.

• Hard macros are block level designs which are silicon tested and proved.

• Hard macros have been optimized for power or area or timing.

• In physical design you can only access pins of hard macros unlike soft macros which allows us to manipulate in different way.

• You have freedom to move, rotate, flip but you can't touch anything inside hard macros.

• Very common example of hard macro is memory. It can be any design which carries dedicated single functionality (in general).. for example it can be a MP4 decoder.

• Be aware of features and characteristics of hard macro before you use it in your design... other than power, timing and area you also should know pin properties like sync pin, I/O standards etc

• LEF, GDS2 file format allows easy usage of macros in different tools.

From the physical design (backend) perspective:

• Hard macro is a block that is generated in a methodology other than place and route (i.e. using full custom design methodology) and is brought into the physical design database (eg. Milkyway in Synopsys; Volcano in Magma) as a GDS2 file.

• Here is one article published in embedded magazine about IPs. Click here to read.

Synthesis and placement of macros in modern SoC designs are challenging. EDA tools employ different algorithms accomplish this task along with the target of power and area. There are several research papers available on these subjects. Some of them can be downloaded from the given link below.

• "Hard Macro Placement in Complex SoC Design" - view and read article from soccentral

• "Hard Macro Placement in Complex SoC Design" - download white paper

IEEE/Univerity research papers

• "Local Search for Final Placement in VLSI Design" -download

• "Consistent Placement of Macro-Blocks Using Floorplanning and standard cell placement" - download

• "A Timing-Driven Soft-Macro Placement And Resynthesis Method In Interaction with Chip Floorplanning" - download

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Labels: ASIC, Physical Design, VLSI

Answer:

 

Clock net is one of the High Fanout Net(HFN)s. The clock buffers are designed with some special property like high drive strength and less delay. Clock buffers have equal rise and fall time. This prevents duty cycle of clock signal from changing when it passes through a chain of clock buffers.

 

Normal buffers are designed with W/L ratio such that sum of rise time and fall time is minimum. They too are designed for higher drive strength.

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Labels: Physical Design, Synthesis